Introduction: 

Minerals play a substantial role in microorganism, plant and animal nutrition.  Macro minerals are required in larger amounts (eg phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, sulfur). Micro or trace elements can simply be defined as those minerals that make up less than 0.01% of the dry weight of an organism and are required in minute amounts, but are essential for its normal health, function and development ¹ (e.g. selenium, boron, cobalt, copper, nickel, molybdenum, manganese etc). 

Minerals are inorganic nutrient elements (other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen).  Minerals cannot be manufactured in microbes, plants or animals - they must be obtained from the soil through the food chain. Mineral nutrients are either :

·         negatively charged Anions (non-metallic elements) - sulfur as sulfate; phosphorus as phosphate; silicon as silicate, chlorine as chloride; iodine as iodide; and fluorine as fluoride.  

Minerals serve wide-ranging functions. They improve cell wall structural rigidity and strength in plants, are components of muscles and connective tissues, and provide the building blocks of bones and teeth. They activate enzymes and are necessary for muscle contraction and rapid transmission of nerve impulses through the body. They help regulate physiologic processes like the blood volume and pH (hydrogen ion concentration).

Biological availability or “bio-availability” refers to the ability of a specific mineral nutrient to be absorbed and utilized by microbes, plants or animals – and is dependent upon mineral quantity, mineral availability, soil pH, mineral ore etching (weathering or microbial) etc. Dietary sources that are high in minerals but low in mineral availability are not good mineral sources.

 Animals usually recognize what they like to eat, but rarely identify what they require for optimum health and performance. Animals generally take lick blocks due to taste, salt content, molasses, etc, and not necessarily because of mineral requirements. Therefore, cravings should generally not be used as a sign of nutritional deficiencies. In many situations (particularly in drought or stress conditions), lick blocks are unsuitable for the specific correction of mineral or vitamin deficiencies. Lick blocks are cost ineffective, can cause abrasion of the tongue and intestines, and may lead to major malnutrition of stock. Overdosing with minerals such as selenium, copper, molybdenum, zinc, manganese, iodine and cobalt can be toxic to animals. For this reason, lick blocks often have very low levels of these minerals (to avoid these toxic effects if the animals overindulge themselves). As a result, lick block mineral dosage rates can be below Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), Adequate Intakes (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels. It is more nutritionally efficient and cost effective to add minerals to the soil, for microbes and plants to take up the nutrients in a Bio-available form, and for animals to then obtain them from their diet.

However, our soils generally are lacking many of these minerals. As a consequence, microorganisms, plants and animals develop mineral deficiencies.  Therefore we must “supplement” our soils with mineral fertilisers. This Technical Sheet is designed to provide a basic knowledge on some of the important concepts of minerals in nutrition. Because of its simple nature, this may grossly oversimplify some of the complex processes and interactions that occur in biological metabolism and nutrition. 

Plants

 Mineral elements generally required for plant growth and development: 

 Some roles of minerals in plant according to Function :

 Nitrogen           N    - amino acids, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), protein, chlorophyll.

Sulfur               S    - some nucleic acids, protein & lipoic acid, coenzyme A, thiamine PPi, glutathione, necessary for energy storage or structural integrity.

Phosphorous    P    - sugar phosphates, carries chemical energy in ATP, nucleic acids, coenzymes, component of phopholipids (in membranes).

Boron               B    - complexes with mannitol and other constituents of cell walls, involved in pollen germination and pollen tube growth ².

Silicon             Si   - deposited as silica in the plant cell walls, improving cell wall structural rigidity / strength, plant architecture & leaf erectness. Plants can contain silicon at levels higher than any other mineral. Si binds aluminium in the soil - forming less toxic aluminosilicates ^3,4,5,6.

Potassium        K    - cofactor for over 40 enzymes including soluble starch synthase; regulates osmotic balance, especially in stomatal opening/closing ⁷.

Sodium            Na  - C₄ photosynthesis & CAM plants.

Magnesium      Mg  - cofactor to many plant enzymes and constituent of chlorophyll.

Calcium           Ca  - major constituent of cell walls; second messenger in metabolic regulation, cell permeability.

Manganese      Mn  - cofactor for some enzymes required for photosynthesis and 0₂ evolution.

Chlorine           Cl   - regulates osmotic balance; component of photosynthetic reaction (PSII) & 0₂ evolution.

Iron                  Fe - cofactor of cytochromes (electron transfer proteins) & non-heme protein in Photosynthesis, respiration, required for chlorophyll synthesis.

Copper             Cu  - cofactor of photosynthetic electron transfer protein (plastocyanin), respriratory electron transfer protein (cytochrome c oxidase) & of other enzymes (eg ascorbic acid oxidase).

Zinc                  Zn   - component alcohol dehydrogenese, CuZn superoxide dismutase.

Molybdenum    Mo  - required for nitrogen fixation and nitrate (NO₃^-) reduction.

Nickel              Ni   - plant enzyme cofactor (urease & hydrogenase). Nickel is required for iron absorption & seed germination. Nickel depletion linked to necrosis of the leaves & stems, lack of grain viability, & depressed vigor of seedlings ^8,9.

Animals: 

The nutritional quality of pasture, forage and diet plays a major role in the health and reproductive performance of animals. Mineral nutrition is a significant component in the management of any animal. Micro or trace mineral deficiencies are associated with soil deficiencies or UN-availability (due to lock-up in the soil matrix).

Certain minerals can act antagonistically against the absorption of other minerals. Bio-availability of one mineral is influenced by the concentration of other minerals in the diet. For example - calcium interacts directly with phosphorus and Vitamin D. If calcium levels are extremely high, phosphorus availability can be reduced. Intricate macro and micro mineral interactions can also arise - high levels of calcium can reduce the absorption of phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, zinc, iron, cobalt and iodine. On the other hand, high levels of phosphorus and magnesium reduces calcium absorption.  High levels of sulfur or molybdenum can hinder copper absorption. While analysis of the feed may show a sufficient copper concentration, because of this antagonism, an animal may actually be copper deficient. 

Animals require multiple different minerals. The amount and combination of minerals required will vary depending on the age, weight, health, species and type and level of production of the animal. For example, young animals absorb minerals such as Ca more efficiently than older animals, but they have higher mineral requirements. Mineral uptake is best achieved from the diet when in a Bio-available form. 

Some of the Macro-minerals involved in animal nutrition:

Calcium           Ca  -  required for skeletal growth, blood clotting, membrane permeability, enzyme activation, muscle contraction & milk production. Vitamin D is required for active absorption. In cattle, a Ca deficiency after calving can lead to hypocalcaemia (milk fever) & calving difficulty, retained placenta & prolapsed uterus ¹⁰.

Phosphorus      P    -  multiple known functions in animals - required for bone & tissue development, cell growth, energy utilization, maintaining acid:base balance, rumen microbes & milk production. P deficiency can affect reproductive performance and may delay puberty (linked to poor appetite & growth rate). Insufficient vitamin D (and P) in the diet causes Rickets (deformities of the joints and bending of the long bones in young growing animals) ^10,11.

Potassium        K    -  essential for the maintenance of osmotic and fluid balance in the body.

Magnesium      Mg  -  required for fat & carbohydrate metabolism; catalyst in over 300 enzyme systems.

Sulfur               S    -  required for essential amino acids (methionine, cysteine), vitamin B’s (biotin, thiamin), maintaining bone, cartilage, tendon and blood vessel integrity and Rumen microbes ¹². High S levels in the diet antagonize the use of copper and molybdenum.

 Some of the Trace or Micro-minerals involved in animal nutrition:

Silicon             Si   -  required for growth, proper connective tissue development, especially in bone and cartilage. Silicate deficiencies in animals produce growth disturbances, especially of bone. Deficiency in birds and animals produces skull deformities and stunted growth. Aging is coupled with declining tissue levels of silicon ^13,14. 

Nickel              Ni   -  needed for normal reproduction. Ni concentration effects production or action of some hormones (eg adrenaline, prolactin, etc).  Ni alters membrane. properties & influences oxidation/reduction systems, chromosomes & ion channels. Ni deficiency linked to abnormal bone growth, decreased blood glucose levels, mal-absorption of ferric iron, and altered metabolism of vitamin B-12 and Ca ^15,16,17.

Molybdenum    Mo  -  an important part of the enzyme, xanthine oxidase. Mo is helpful in counteracting copper toxicity in sheep ¹⁸.

Selenium         Se  -  an important component of enzyme systems and interacts with vitamin E to prevent tissue damage. Se deficiency linked with significantly reduced fertility in sheep and cattle, "white muscle disease" in lambs & calves, retained placentas, occasional abortions and reduced ability to resist disease ^19,20,10,18.

Copper             Cu  -  required in red blood cells, key enzymes & connective tissues. Cu deficient animals may be anemic & have an unthrifty appearance and, in severe cases, a bleached hair/coat, delayed puberty & poor fertility. Copper interacts antagonistically with iron, zinc, sulfur & molybdenum ¹⁸.

Iron                  Fe  -  involved in cellular respiration & O₂ transport via hemoglobin. Antagonist to Cu & Zn.

Manganese      Mn  -  involved in energy metabolism and enzyme activation. Mn deficiency seriously affects reproductive performance (decreased conception rates, higher abortion rates and low birth weight) and growth rates (weak offspring, deformed legs and enlarged joints).

Zinc                  Zn   -  important in immune response, protein synthesis, enzyme systems and stress management. Low zinc diets affect fertility (low sperm production, low conception rates) & growth in cattle. Zn deficiency linked to Vitamin A deficiency. High calcium and phosphorus levels decrease zinc absorption from the intestine.

Iodine              I     -  required for the formation of thyroid gland hormones that are responsible for controlling the metabolic rate of the body. Iodine deficiency indirectly influences growth rate, milk production and feed consumption. Goiters develop when an iodine deficiency is severe. High nitrate feeds can reduce digestive tract uptake of iodine ^21,22.

Cobalt              Co  -  required for the synthesis of Vitamin B₁₂ - required for energy metabolism. Animals deficient in cobalt have a poor appetite, lose body condition & are weak. Cobalt deficiency can be seen in association with heavy liming of pasture. Low Co levels affect activity of manganese, zinc & iodine, and reduce copper storage in the liver ^23,18.

Boron               B    -  role in healthy brain function and cognitive performance; and preventing bone calcium loss in postmenopausal women ^24,25.

Chromium        Cr   -  influences the immune response in stressed animals, improves action of insulin, increases uptake of glucose & amino acids by cells in the body, & assists liver to metabolize triglycerides ^26,27,28.

Sodium & Chloride   Na & Cl - components of salt, are essential nutrients. Salt is required to regulate body fluid levels. In addition, sodium affects the absorption of sugar and proteins from the digestive tract. Salt deficiencies can affect the efficiency of digestion and indirectly the reproduction performance.  

Conclusion: 

Unbalanced minerals and nutrient deficient soils are an important cause of poor plant / animal health, development and reproductive performance. The take home message is to have well balanced minerals/beneficial microbes in the soil. This allows for a balanced uptake of bio-available mineral nutrients through the food chain into microorganisms, plants and animals.   

Western Mineral Fertilisers selects and uses the most biologically friendly and bio-available minerals in our compound mineral fertilisers. 

References: 

1.       Taylor, A. (1996). Detection and monitoring of disorders of essential trace elements. Ann. Clin. Biochem., 33, 486-510.

2.       Qin Yu, A. Hlavacka, T. Matoh, D. Volkmann, D. Menzel, H.E. Goldbach, and F. Baluška (2002), Short-Term Boron Deprivation Inhibits Endocytosis of Cell Wall Pectins in Meristematic Cells of Maize and Wheat Root Apices Plant Physiol. 130(1): 415–421.

3.       McManus WR, Anthony, RG, Grout, LL., Malin, AS. & Robinson VNE (1979) Biocrystallization of mineral material on forage plant cell walls, Aust Journal of Agricultural Research 30(4) 635 – 649.

4.       Nelwamondo A, Jaffer MA, Dakora FD (2001) Subcellular organization of N2-fixing nodules of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) supplied with silicon Protoplasma.;216(1-2):94-100.

5.       Cocker, K.M., Evans, D.E. & Hodson, M.J. (1998). The amelioration of aluminium toxicity by silicon in higher plants: Solution chemistry or an in planta mechanism? Physiol. Plant. 104, 608.614.

6.       Vashegyi, A., Zsoldos, F., Pécsváradi, A., Bona, L. (2002). Aluminium/silicon interactions in cereal seedlings Acta Biologica Szegediensis 46(3-4):129-30.

7.       Pettigrew,W.T. (1999). Potassium Deficiency Increases Specific Leaf Weights and Leaf Glucose Levels in Field-Grown Cotton, Agronomy Journal  91:962-968.

8.       Dalton DA, Russell SA, Evans HJ. (1988). Nickel as a micronutrient element for plants. Biofactors. 1(1):11-6.

 9.       Brown, P.H., Welch, R.M. and Cary, E.E. (1987). Nickel: a micronutrient essential for higher plants. Plant Physiol., 85, 801-803.

10.   Mayberry, C., & D. Maughan (1992). Mineral requirements of the lactating dairy cow, Dept of Ag, Western Australia Farmnote 7/92.  

11.    Masters,H., & B. McCormick. (2004). Phosphorus for cattle and sheep, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia Farmnote 36/90.

12.   Faichney GJ. & White GA. (1979). The net utilization of inorganic sulphur by rumen microbes. Ann Rech Vet.;10(2-3):280-2.

13.   Carlisle, E.M. (1986) Silicon as an essential trace element in animal nutrition Ciba Found Symp. 121:123-39. 

14.   Seaborn, C.D. & Nielsen, F. H. (1993) Silicon: A nutritional beneficence for bones, brains & blood vessels? Nutr. Today 28: 13-18.

15.   Sigel, H. & Sigel, A., eds. (1988), Nickel & Its Role in Biology, Metal Ions in Biological Systems,  23. Marcel Dekker, New York, NY.

16.   Spears JW (1984). Nickel as a "newer trace element" in the nutrition of domestic animals, J Anim Sci. 59(3):823-35;     

17.   Kenney, M. A., & McCoy, H. (1992) A review of biointeractions of Ni and Mg. I. Enzyme, endocrine, transport, and skeletal systems. Magnesium Res. 5: 215-222.)

18.   Higgs, T. (2004). Trace element deficiencies in sheep and cattle, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia Farmnote 8/2004.

19.   Schubert, J.R., O.H. Muth, J.E. Oldfield and L.F. Remment (1961). Experimental results with selenium in white muscle disease of lambs and calves Federation Proc. 20:689.    

20.   Gretebeck, S. H. (1970). Vitamin E status report, Frontiers in Nutrition Supplement, 223:901.

21.   Lee,S.M., Lewis,J., Buss,D.H., Holcombe,G.D. & Lawrence,P.R. (1994). Iodine in British foods & diet. British J Nutrition, 72, 435-446.

22.   Puls, R. (1994). Mineral Levels in Animal Health. Diagnostic Data. 2nd Edition. Sherpa International, Clearbrook, BC, Canada.

23.   Morcombe, P & Croker, K (1989). Avoiding cobalt deficiency in livestock, Dept of Agriculture, Western Australia Farmnote 80/89.  

24.   Blevins DG, & Lukaszewski KM. (1994), Proposed physiologic functions of boron in plants pertinent to animal and human metabolism. Environmental Health Perspectives. 102, 7:31-3.     

25.   Hunt CD., Herbal JL. Nielsen FH. (1997), Metabolic responses of post-menopausal women to supplemental dietary boron and aluminum during usual and low magnesium intake: boron, calcium, and magnesium absorption and retention and blood mineral concentrations. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 65(3):803-13.

26.   Burton,J.L., Mallard,B.A. & Mowat,D.N. (1993). Effects of Supplemental Chromium on immune responses of periparturient & early lactation dairy cows. J.Animal Sci. 71:1532-39.

27.   Stoecker, B. J. (1990). Chromium. Present Knowledge in Nutrition. M. L. Brown, ed. International Life Sciences Institute Nutrition Foundation, Washington, D.C. pp. 287-293

28.   Subiyatno,A., Mowat,D.N. & Yang,W.Z. (1996). Metabolite & hormonal responses to glucose or propionate infusion in periparturient dairy cows supplemented with chromium. J.Dairy Sci. 79:1436-45.